PROGRAMMED LEARNING

PROGRAMMED LEARNING

            Programmed learning or programmed instruction represents one of the effective innovations in the teaching learning process. As a highly individualized and systematic instructional strategy , it has been found quite useful for classroom instruction as well as self learning or auto instruction. In our country , also there have been attempts for the use of programmed instructions especially in providing material to the students of correspondence courses. Suitable self instructional programmed materials for different subjects and grades have been prepared and it is being used for instructional or self instructional purposes .Programmed learning occupies a unique place in the teaching and learning of the all the school subjects especially those requiring logical and systematic study coupled with independent practice and drill work.                

            The term Programmed learning has been coined from principles of operant learning or conditioning developed at the psychological laboratories on the basis of experimental studies conducted on animals by B.F. Skinner of Harvard University. This concept was used to development of self learning material or programmed learning and teaching machines. B.F. Skinner and his companions had first started ‘programmed learning’ in 1943 

            B.F. Skinner published a paper entitled ‘Science of Learning and art of Teaching’ . This paper leads the way for the programmed instruction. He claimed that desirable behavior can be brought out by continuous feed  back . Thereafter, Sidney L. Pressey designed a teaching machine for teaching purpose.

What is Programmed Learning?

Smith and Moore (1962) Programmed instruction is the process of arranging the material to be learned into a series of sequential steps, usually it moves the students from a familiar background into a complex and new set of concepts, principles and understanding.

Espich and Williams (1967) Programmed instruction is a planned sequence of experiences , leading to proficiency in terms of stimulus response relationships, that have proven to be effective.

Susan Markle (1969) It is a method of designing a reproducible sequence of instrumental events to produce a measurable and consistent effect on the behaviour of each and every acceptable student.

Jacob and Others (1966) Self instructional programmes are educational materials from which the students learn. These programmes can be used with many types of students and subject matter , either by themselves , hence the name "self instruction" or in combination with other instructional techniques.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PROGRAMMED LEARNING

1.Programmed learning is a method or technique of giving or receiving individualized instruction from a variety of sources such as programmed text book, teaching machine, and computers with or without the help of a teacher.

2.In this technique, the instructional material is logically sequenced and broken into suitable small steps or segments of the subject matter, called frames.

3.For sequencing a particular unit of the instructional material, the programmer has to pay consideration for the initial or entry behaviour of the learner with which it begins and the terminal behaviour or the competence which the student is required to achieve.

4.In actual operation, a frame is presented to the learner. The learner is required to read or listen and then respond actively.

5.This learning system has an adequate provision for immediate feedback that is based on the theory of reinforcement. For instance while responding to the first frame of the programmed material, the learner is informed about the correctness of his response .If he is correct, his responses are reinforced and if he is wrong, he may correct himself by receiving the correct answer.

6.It is the interaction between the learner and the learning material or programme that is emphasized in the programmed learning. Here the student is actively motivated to learn and respond.

7.It provides self pacing thus learning may occur at individual rate rather than general, depending upon the nature of the learner, learning material and the learning situations.

8.It calls for the overt responses of the learner that can readily be observed, measured and effectively controlled.

9.It has the provision for continuous evaluation that may help in improving the student's performance and the quality of programmed material.

                Programmed learning is a systematically planned, empirically established and effectively controlled self instructional technique for providing individualized instruction to the learner through logically sequenced small segments of the subject matter by using the principles of operant conditioning and schedules of reinforcement.

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES

            The studies and researches in the field of programmed learning having led to the establishment of some fundamental principles associated with a good programmed learning strategy. These are summarized below:

1.Principle of small steps

                   This principle is based on the basic assumption that a person learns better if the content matter is presented to him in suitable small steps. Therefore , a programmer while preparing a programme should try to arrange the subject matter into a properly sequenced and meaningful segment of information called frames. These segments should be presented one at a time before the learner for responding.

2.Principle of active responding

                         This principle rests on the assumption that a learner learns better by being  active . In programmed learning, the learner may remain active if he responds actively to every frame presented to him. Therefore a good programme should actively involve the learner in the learning process. It should be so formed that the learner may not feel much difficulty in moving from one frame to another and to remain meaningfully, busy and active by responding to the frame thus, acquiring the knowledge step-by-step.

3.Principle if immediate reinforcement

                 The psychological phenomenon of reinforcement is the basis of this principle, One person learns better when he is motivated to learn by receiving information of the result just immediately after responding. Therefore, in a good programme, appropriate consideration is always made for the provision of immediate reinforcement by informing him about the correctness of his response.

4.Principle of self pacing

                  Programmed learning is a technique of individualized instruction. It is based on the basic assumption that learning can take place better if an individual is allowed to  learn at his own pace. So, a good programme should always take care of the principle of self pacing. The programming of the material should be done in view of the principle of individual difference and the learner should be able to respond and move from one frame to another according to his own speed of learning.

5.Principle of student testing

                    For better learning, it is always good to seek continuous evaluation of the learning process. The principle of students testing meets this requirement. In the programmed learning, the learner has to leave the record of his response because he is required to write a response for each frame on a response sheet. This detailed record helps in revising the programme. It may also prove a good source for studying and improving the complex phenomenon of human learning.

OBJECTIVES OF PROGRAMMED LEARNING

•         To help the students for learning by doing

•         To provide the situation to learn at his/her own speed

•         To help the student to learn without the presence of teacher

•         To present the mater in a logical manner

•         To study himself

•         To evaluate himself

•         To compare his/her answer with the key

STYLES OF PROGRAMMING

             In programmed learning the presentation of instructional material or subject matter to the learner in a suitable form is termed as programming. Various types of programming have emerged on account of researchers and experimental studies in the field of programmed instruction. The following list gives some of the mentionable ones:

1.Linear or extrinsic programming

2.Branching or intrinsic Programming

3.Mathetics Programming

4.Ruleg system of Programming

5.Computer assisted instruction

6.Learner controlled instruction

      The first three styles linear branching and mathetics represent the actual basic formats. The Ruleg system represents the deductive and inductive approaches in teaching. Here, a perfect rule or special example works as a stimulus for evoking the responses in terms of imperfect rule or imperfect example .In practice, this system is just the extension of linear or branching programming.

                  The other two styles Computer assisted instruction and learner controlled instruction are actually the ways and means of providing instructions and not the special or basic format of the programming. In programming, usually the programmer makes use of the basic formats linear , branching or mathetics for developing programmes suitable to computer or learner controlled instructions. The most frequently used linear and branching programming styles  are explained below:

LINEAR OR EXTRINSIC PROGRAMMING

The credit for propagating the linear programming style goes to B.F Skinner (1955).It is directly related with his theory of "operant conditioning" and is based on the assumption that human behaviour can be shaped or conditioned gradually, step by step, with suitable reinforcement for each desires response .Consequently, in this programming, the instructional material is sequenced into a number of meaningful small steps called frames. These frames are presented to the learner in the arranged sequence, one at a time. The learner is required to respond actively at each step. Immediately after responding, the learner is given information about the correctness of his response. It reinforces his behaviour and he may be motivated to learn the next frame in the arranged sequence. By proceeding from one step to another, the learner may be able to acquire the desired learning experiences.

                   The sequence of frames and path of learning in this programmed learning is systematic and linear. That is why, the type of programming is referred to as 'linear'. Here all the learners have to proceed through the same frames and in the same order. The whole instructional procedure is well controlled. However , this control is quite extrinsic exercised by the programmer and so, the linear programming is also referred to as extrinsic programming.

                 The linear programming lays great emphasis on making the sequences of response errorless. For this purpose, the steps are made so small and sequenced in such a way that the learner makes only correct responses throughout the instruction process and receives, in consequences , only positive reinforcement. If the learner does not respond correctly to a particular frame, he may be required either to repeat the frame or be acquainted with the correct response. In any case he is not allowed to move to the next frame unless he responds correctly to the present frame.

Example:In addition to the eight planete, the satellite of the planets, comets, meteors and asteroids also are the members of the ---------.All these planets and the other heavenly bodies revolve around the---------in their own--------.

                                                                           Responses: Solar system; sun ;orbits

                In this manner , the students may proceed on their self learning path by going from one frame to another arranged in a sequential and systematic way.

BRANCHING OR INTRINSIC PROGRAMMING

             The credit for developing the branching programme goes to an American psychologists, Norman A. Crowder (1954).In his own words, branching or intrinsic programming is one which adapts to the need of the students without a medium of an extrinsic device such as a computer. In contrast to linear programming, this style, therefore, provides an intrinsic arrangement in the sense that it is not controlled extrinsically by the programmer. Here, a learner is free to make decisions and is able to adapt the instruction to his needs. The basic assumptions underlying this style are as below:

1.The learner learns a thing better if it is presented in its totality or in the form of meaningful components or units.

2.Learning takes place better if the students are made to learn on the pattern of traditional tutorial methods.

3.The basic learning takes place during the student's exposure to the new material.

4.Wrong responses do not necessarily hinder the learning of a correct response.In a learning process, errors may occur. If an error occurs, it may be detected and corrected before proceeding further on the learning path.

5.Learning takes place better if a learner is allowed sufficient freedom to take decisions for adapting the instruction to his needs.

6.Learning will be better if each response is used to test the success of the latest communication to the student and the testing is followed by remedial instructions.

7.Multiple choice items help more in the learning process than the forced choice single response items.

Based on the above assumptions, the procedure for branching programme may be outlined in the following way:

1.The instructional material is divided into 'units' of material called 'frames' .Much information ,one or two paragraphs or even a page, is provided in a frame. Thus, such a frame is quite larger than that employed in linear programming.

2.The learner goes through the frame, After that he is required to respond to multiple choice questions associated with the learning material of the frame. He has to discriminate and choose one right answer.

3.The learner moves forward if he answers correctly, but is diverted (branched) to one or more remedial frames if he does not. These frames explain the matter afresh, ask him questions to elicit the right answer and reveal his previous mistakes, and then return him to the original frame.

4.This cycle goes on till the learner passes through the whole instructional material at his own pace.

Example:  The earth has been evolved out of the sun. Like the earth, many of its constituents got separated from it, but remained attached to it on account of its gravitational power. They still may be seen to revolve around their parent body i.e. sun. These are known as planets. There are eight such planets(Pluto once known as the ninth planet, has now been categorized as one of the dwarf planets along with Ceres and Eris)including our Earth. There are some heavenly bodies named as satellites in the solar system. They can be observed to revolve around their respective planets. The moon is one of such satellites. It revolves around the Earth.

ADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS OF PROGRAMMED LEARNING

Programmed learning may prove quite useful to the students, teachers and the educational administrators from various angles .Its advantages and applications are summarized as below:

1.Programmed learning may help in individualizing the instructional process. The scope of self pacing give opportunity to the students for learning with their own speed without obstructing the path of others.

2.It provides feeding material to the self instructional devices such as computer, teaching machine and programmed text. Such devices

    i)help the students in the task of self learning

   ii)solve the problem of paying individual attention

   iii)solve the problem of dearth of trained and effective teachers

  iv)help in revolutionizing, developing and providing the techniques of self and mass education.

3.It may free the teachers from the hard labour and complexities of routine classroom activities. It may help them bear a larger load of the students and devote their time to more creative activities.

4.The social setting of the classroom may be properly improved and the problem of discipline gets solved automatically with the help of programmed instruction.

5.It may prove useful in the enrichment of curriculum and thereby, in the education of the exceptional children.

6.It may be effectively used in providing guidance and remedial instruction

7.It helps in the development of interrogative, judgemental and creative learning. The power of discrimination and making immediate and effective response is developed through such instruction.

8.There are various special areas of the curriculum, and many complex behaviours and skill that can be effectively improved and mastered through the programmed learning technique. For example, drill and practice work in various school subjects, concept formation and learning of principles and similar other intellectual and motor skills can be effectively learned through it.

                            Programmed learning represents one of the most effective innovations in the field of teaching learning that proves very helpful in the development of an appropriate self instructional or self learning material in a quite systematic and organized way by making usu of five basic principles .The development of  such a material, in fact, then paves the way for the preparation of the text books used in self learning on the part of the students and the development of the needed software's for the computer programmers.             

           Thus programmed learning may prove a big helping hand in all the tasks and aspects of education. The fear that it is going to displace either the regular classroom teaching or the classroom teacher is baseless. It always works for providing assistance to the teachers, students convenience in a more systematic and organized way for realizing specific instructional objectives and broader educational purposes.

           REFERENCES:

1. Sharma A.R (2004) Educational Technology and Management. Meerut : Surya publications

2.Aggarwal J C (1995) Essentials of Educational Technology . New Delhi : Vikas publications

3.Mangal s.k , & Uma Mangal (2012) Essentials of Educational Technology. Haryana : Baba barbha Nath publications