PROGRAMMED LEARNING
Programmed learning or programmed
instruction represents one of the effective innovations in the teaching
learning process. As a highly individualized and systematic instructional
strategy , it has been found quite useful for classroom instruction as well as
self learning or auto instruction. In our country , also there have been
attempts for the use of programmed instructions especially in providing
material to the students of correspondence courses. Suitable self instructional
programmed materials for different subjects and grades have been prepared and
it is being used for instructional or self instructional purposes .Programmed
learning occupies a unique place in the teaching and learning of the all the
school subjects especially those requiring logical and systematic study coupled
with independent practice and drill work.
The term Programmed learning has been coined from
principles of operant learning or conditioning developed at the psychological
laboratories on the basis of experimental studies conducted on animals by B.F. Skinner
of Harvard University. This concept was used to development of self learning
material or programmed learning and teaching machines. B.F. Skinner and his
companions had first started ‘programmed learning’ in 1943
B.F. Skinner
published a paper entitled ‘Science of Learning and art of Teaching’ . This
paper leads the way for the programmed instruction. He claimed that desirable
behavior can be brought out by continuous feed
back . Thereafter, Sidney L. Pressey designed a teaching machine for
teaching purpose.
What is Programmed Learning?
Smith
and Moore (1962) Programmed instruction is the process of arranging the
material to be learned into a series of sequential steps, usually it moves the
students from a familiar background into a complex and new set of concepts,
principles and understanding.
Espich
and Williams (1967) Programmed instruction is a planned sequence of experiences
, leading to proficiency in terms of stimulus response relationships, that have
proven to be effective.
Susan
Markle (1969) It is a method of designing a reproducible sequence of
instrumental events to produce a measurable and consistent effect on the
behaviour of each and every acceptable student.
Jacob
and Others (1966) Self instructional programmes are educational materials from
which the students learn. These programmes can be used with many types of
students and subject matter , either by themselves , hence the name "self
instruction" or in combination with other instructional techniques.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PROGRAMMED
LEARNING
1.Programmed
learning is a method or technique of giving or receiving individualized
instruction from a variety of sources such as programmed text book, teaching
machine, and computers with or without the help of a teacher.
2.In
this technique, the instructional material is logically sequenced and broken
into suitable small steps or segments of the subject matter, called frames.
3.For
sequencing a particular unit of the instructional material, the programmer has
to pay consideration for the initial or entry behaviour of the learner with
which it begins and the terminal behaviour or the competence which the student
is required to achieve.
4.In
actual operation, a frame is presented to the learner. The learner is required
to read or listen and then respond actively.
5.This
learning system has an adequate provision for immediate feedback that is based
on the theory of reinforcement. For instance while responding to the first
frame of the programmed material, the learner is informed about the correctness
of his response .If he is correct, his responses are reinforced and if he is wrong,
he may correct himself by receiving the correct answer.
6.It
is the interaction between the learner and the learning material or programme
that is emphasized in the programmed learning. Here the student is actively
motivated to learn and respond.
7.It
provides self pacing thus learning may occur at individual rate rather than
general, depending upon the nature of the learner, learning material and the
learning situations.
8.It
calls for the overt responses of the learner that can readily be observed, measured
and effectively controlled.
9.It
has the provision for continuous evaluation that may help in improving the
student's performance and the quality of programmed material.
Programmed learning is a
systematically planned, empirically established and effectively controlled self
instructional technique for providing individualized instruction to the learner
through logically sequenced small segments of the subject matter by using the
principles of operant conditioning and schedules of reinforcement.
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES
The
studies and researches in the field of programmed learning having led to the
establishment of some fundamental principles associated with a good programmed
learning strategy. These are summarized below:
1.Principle
of small steps
This principle is based on
the basic assumption that a person learns better if the content matter is
presented to him in suitable small steps. Therefore , a programmer while
preparing a programme should try to arrange the subject matter into a properly
sequenced and meaningful segment of information called frames. These segments
should be presented one at a time before the learner for responding.
2.Principle
of active responding
This principle rests
on the assumption that a learner learns better by being active . In programmed learning, the learner
may remain active if he responds actively to every frame presented to him. Therefore
a good programme should actively involve the learner in the learning process. It
should be so formed that the learner may not feel much difficulty in moving
from one frame to another and to remain meaningfully, busy and active by
responding to the frame thus, acquiring the knowledge step-by-step.
3.Principle
if immediate reinforcement
The psychological phenomenon
of reinforcement is the basis of this principle, One person learns better when
he is motivated to learn by receiving information of the result just
immediately after responding. Therefore, in a good programme, appropriate
consideration is always made for the provision of immediate reinforcement by
informing him about the correctness of his response.
4.Principle
of self pacing
Programmed learning is a
technique of individualized instruction. It is based on the basic assumption
that learning can take place better if an individual is allowed to learn at his own pace. So, a good programme
should always take care of the principle of self pacing. The programming of the
material should be done in view of the principle of individual difference and
the learner should be able to respond and move from one frame to another
according to his own speed of learning.
5.Principle
of student testing
For better learning, it is
always good to seek continuous evaluation of the learning process. The
principle of students testing meets this requirement. In the programmed learning,
the learner has to leave the record of his response because he is required to
write a response for each frame on a response sheet. This detailed record helps
in revising the programme. It may also prove a good source for studying and
improving the complex phenomenon of human learning.
OBJECTIVES OF PROGRAMMED LEARNING
•
To
help the students for learning by doing
•
To
provide the situation to learn at his/her own speed
•
To
help the student to learn without the presence of teacher
•
To
present the mater in a logical manner
•
To
study himself
•
To
evaluate himself
•
To
compare his/her answer with the key
STYLES OF PROGRAMMING
In programmed learning the presentation of
instructional material or subject matter to the learner in a suitable form is
termed as programming. Various types of programming have emerged on account of
researchers and experimental studies in the field of programmed instruction.
The following list gives some of the mentionable ones:
1.Linear
or extrinsic programming
2.Branching
or intrinsic Programming
3.Mathetics
Programming
4.Ruleg
system of Programming
5.Computer
assisted instruction
6.Learner
controlled instruction
The first three styles linear branching
and mathetics represent the actual basic formats. The Ruleg system represents
the deductive and inductive approaches in teaching. Here, a perfect rule or
special example works as a stimulus for evoking the responses in terms of
imperfect rule or imperfect example .In practice, this system is just the
extension of linear or branching programming.
The other two styles Computer
assisted instruction and learner controlled instruction are actually the ways
and means of providing instructions and not the special or basic format of the
programming. In programming, usually the programmer makes use of the basic
formats linear , branching or mathetics for developing programmes suitable to
computer or learner controlled instructions. The most frequently used linear
and branching programming styles are
explained below:
LINEAR OR EXTRINSIC PROGRAMMING
The
credit for propagating the linear programming style goes to B.F Skinner
(1955).It is directly related with his theory of "operant
conditioning" and is based on the assumption that human behaviour can be
shaped or conditioned gradually, step by step, with suitable reinforcement for
each desires response .Consequently, in this programming, the instructional
material is sequenced into a number of meaningful small steps called frames. These
frames are presented to the learner in the arranged sequence, one at a time. The
learner is required to respond actively at each step. Immediately after
responding, the learner is given information about the correctness of his
response. It reinforces his behaviour and he may be motivated to learn the next
frame in the arranged sequence. By proceeding from one step to another, the
learner may be able to acquire the desired learning experiences.
The sequence of frames and
path of learning in this programmed learning is systematic and linear. That is
why, the type of programming is referred to as 'linear'. Here all the learners
have to proceed through the same frames and in the same order. The whole instructional
procedure is well controlled. However , this control is quite extrinsic
exercised by the programmer and so, the linear programming is also referred to
as extrinsic programming.
The linear programming lays
great emphasis on making the sequences of response errorless. For this purpose,
the steps are made so small and sequenced in such a way that the learner makes
only correct responses throughout the instruction process and receives, in consequences
, only positive reinforcement. If the learner does not respond correctly to a
particular frame, he may be required either to repeat the frame or be
acquainted with the correct response. In any case he is not allowed to move to
the next frame unless he responds correctly to the present frame.
Example:In
addition to the eight planete, the satellite of the planets, comets, meteors
and asteroids also are the members of the ---------.All these planets and the
other heavenly bodies revolve around the---------in their own--------.
Responses:
Solar system; sun ;orbits
In this manner , the students
may proceed on their self learning path by going from one frame to another
arranged in a sequential and systematic way.
BRANCHING OR INTRINSIC PROGRAMMING
The credit for developing the branching
programme goes to an American psychologists, Norman A. Crowder (1954).In his
own words, branching or intrinsic programming is one which adapts to the need
of the students without a medium of an extrinsic device such as a computer. In
contrast to linear programming, this style, therefore, provides an intrinsic
arrangement in the sense that it is not controlled extrinsically by the
programmer. Here, a learner is free to make decisions and is able to adapt the
instruction to his needs. The basic assumptions underlying this style are as
below:
1.The
learner learns a thing better if it is presented in its totality or in the form
of meaningful components or units.
2.Learning
takes place better if the students are made to learn on the pattern of
traditional tutorial methods.
3.The
basic learning takes place during the student's exposure to the new material.
4.Wrong
responses do not necessarily hinder the learning of a correct response.In a
learning process, errors may occur. If an error occurs, it may be detected and
corrected before proceeding further on the learning path.
5.Learning
takes place better if a learner is allowed sufficient freedom to take decisions
for adapting the instruction to his needs.
6.Learning
will be better if each response is used to test the success of the latest
communication to the student and the testing is followed by remedial
instructions.
7.Multiple
choice items help more in the learning process than the forced choice single
response items.
Based
on the above assumptions, the procedure for branching programme may be outlined
in the following way:
1.The
instructional material is divided into 'units' of material called 'frames' .Much
information ,one or two paragraphs or even a page, is provided in a frame. Thus,
such a frame is quite larger than that employed in linear programming.
2.The
learner goes through the frame, After that he is required to respond to
multiple choice questions associated with the learning material of the frame. He
has to discriminate and choose one right answer.
3.The
learner moves forward if he answers correctly, but is diverted (branched) to
one or more remedial frames if he does not. These frames explain the matter
afresh, ask him questions to elicit the right answer and reveal his previous
mistakes, and then return him to the original frame.
4.This
cycle goes on till the learner passes through the whole instructional material
at his own pace.
Example: The earth has been evolved out of the sun. Like
the earth, many of its constituents got separated from it, but remained
attached to it on account of its gravitational power. They still may be seen to
revolve around their parent body i.e. sun. These are known as planets. There
are eight such planets(Pluto once known as the ninth planet, has now been
categorized as one of the dwarf planets along with Ceres and Eris)including our
Earth. There are some heavenly bodies named as satellites in the solar system. They
can be observed to revolve around their respective planets. The moon is one of
such satellites. It revolves around the Earth.
ADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS OF PROGRAMMED
LEARNING
Programmed
learning may prove quite useful to the students, teachers and the educational
administrators from various angles .Its advantages and applications are
summarized as below:
1.Programmed
learning may help in individualizing the instructional process. The scope of
self pacing give opportunity to the students for learning with their own speed
without obstructing the path of others.
2.It
provides feeding material to the self instructional devices such as computer,
teaching machine and programmed text. Such devices
i)help the students in the task of self
learning
ii)solve the problem of paying individual
attention
iii)solve the problem of dearth of trained
and effective teachers
iv)help in revolutionizing, developing and
providing the techniques of self and mass education.
3.It
may free the teachers from the hard labour and complexities of routine
classroom activities. It may help them bear a larger load of the students and
devote their time to more creative activities.
4.The
social setting of the classroom may be properly improved and the problem of
discipline gets solved automatically with the help of programmed instruction.
5.It
may prove useful in the enrichment of curriculum and thereby, in the education
of the exceptional children.
6.It
may be effectively used in providing guidance and remedial instruction
7.It
helps in the development of interrogative, judgemental and creative learning. The
power of discrimination and making immediate and effective response is
developed through such instruction.
8.There
are various special areas of the curriculum, and many complex behaviours and
skill that can be effectively improved and mastered through the programmed
learning technique. For example, drill and practice work in various school
subjects, concept formation and learning of principles and similar other
intellectual and motor skills can be effectively learned through it.
Programmed learning
represents one of the most effective innovations in the field of teaching
learning that proves very helpful in the development of an appropriate self
instructional or self learning material in a quite systematic and organized way
by making usu of five basic principles .The development of such a material, in fact, then paves the way
for the preparation of the text books used in self learning on the part of the
students and the development of the needed software's for the computer
programmers.
Thus programmed learning may prove a
big helping hand in all the tasks and aspects of education. The fear that it is
going to displace either the regular classroom teaching or the classroom
teacher is baseless. It always works for providing assistance to the teachers, students
convenience in a more systematic and organized way for realizing specific
instructional objectives and broader educational purposes.
REFERENCES:
1. Sharma A.R (2004) Educational Technology and Management. Meerut : Surya publications
2.Aggarwal J C (1995) Essentials of Educational Technology . New Delhi : Vikas publications
3.Mangal s.k , & Uma Mangal (2012) Essentials of Educational Technology. Haryana : Baba barbha Nath publications
